Bibliography on Transformations (2017-06-06)

The standard SPARQL query language is currently defined for querying RDF graphs without RDFS semantics. Several extensions of SPARQL to RDFS semantics have been proposed. In this paper, we discuss extensions of SPARQL that use regular expressions to navigate RDF graphs and may be used to answer queries considering RDFS semantics. In particular, we present and compare nSPARQL and our proposal CPSPARQL. We show that CPSPARQL is expressive enough to answer full SPARQL queries modulo RDFS. Finally, we compare the expressiveness and complexity of both nSPARQL and the corresponding fragment of CPSPARQL, that we call cpSPARQL. We show that both languages have the same complexity through cpSPARQL, being a proper extension of SPARQL graph patterns, is more expressive than nSPARQL.

SPARQL is the standard query language for RDF graphs. In its strict instantiation, it only offers querying according to the RDF semantics and would thus ignore the semantics of data expressed with respect to (RDF) schemas or (OWL) ontologies. Several extensions to SPARQL have been proposed to query RDF data modulo RDFS, i.e., interpreting the query with RDFS semantics and/or considering external ontologies. We introduce a general framework which allows for expressing query answering modulo a particular semantics in an homogeneous way. In this paper, we discuss extensions of SPARQL that use regular expressions to navigate RDF graphs and may be used to answer queries considering RDFS semantics. We also consider their embedding as extensions of SPARQL. These SPARQL extensions are interpreted within the proposed framework and their drawbacks are presented. In particular, we show that the PSPARQL query language, a strict extension of SPARQL offering transitive closure, allows for answering SPARQL queries modulo RDFS graphs with the same complexity as SPARQL through a simple transformation of the queries. We also consider languages which, in addition to paths, provide constraints. In particular, we present and compare nSPARQL and our proposal CPSPARQL. We show that CPSPARQL is expressive enough to answer full SPARQL queries modulo RDFS. Finally, we compare the expressiveness and complexity of both nSPARQL and the corresponding fragment of CPSPARQL, that we call cpSPARQL. We show that both languages have the same complexity through cpSPARQL, being a proper extension of SPARQL graph patterns, is more expressive than nSPARQL.

Query containment is the problem of deciding if the answers to a query are included in those of another query for any queried database. This problem is very important for query optimization purposes. In the SPARQL context, it can be equally useful. This problem has recently been investigated theoretically and some query containment solvers are available. Yet, there were no benchmarks to compare theses systems and foster their improvement. In order to experimentally assess implementation strengths and limitations, we provide a first SPARQL containment test benchmark. It has been designed with respect to both the capabilities of existing solvers and the study of typical queries. Some solvers support optional constructs and cycles, while other solvers support projection, union of conjunctive queries and RDF Schemas. No solver currently supports all these features or OWL entailment regimes. The study of query demographics on DBPedia logs shows that the vast majority of queries are acyclic and a significant part of them uses UNION or projection. We thus test available solvers on their domain of applicability on three different benchmark suites. These experiments show that (i) tested solutions are overall functionally correct, (ii) in spite of its complexity, SPARQL query containment is practicable for acyclic queries, (iii) state-of-the-art solvers are at an early stage both in terms of capability and implementation.

This chapter provides an introduction to the RDF language as well as surveys the languages that can be used for querying RDF graphs. Then it reviews some of the languages that can be used for querying RDF and provides a comparison between these query languages.

The problem of SPARQL query containment is defined as determining if the result of one query is included in the result of another one for any RDF graph. Query containment is important in many areas, including information integration, query optimization, and reasoning about Entity-Relationship diagrams. We encode this problem into an expressive logic called the mu-calculus where RDF graphs become transition systems, queries and schema axioms become formulas. Thus, the containment problem is reduced to formula satisfiability. Beyond the logic's expressive power, satisfiability solvers are available for it. Hence, this study allows to exploit these advantages.

SPARQL query containment under schema axioms is the problem of determining whether, for any RDF graph satisfying a given set of schema axioms, the answers to a query are contained in the answers of another query. This problem has major applications for verification and optimization of queries. In order to solve it, we rely on the mu-calculus. Firstly, we provide a mapping from RDF graphs into transition systems. Secondly, SPARQL queries and RDFS and SHI axioms are encoded into mu-calculus formulas. This allows us to reduce query containment and equivalence to satisfiability in the mu-calculus. Finally, we prove a double exponential upper bound for containment under SHI schema axioms.

The problem of SPARQL query containment has recently attracted a lot of attention due to its fundamental purpose in query optimization and information integration. New approaches to this problem, have been put forth, that can be implemented in practice. However, these approaches suffer from various limitations: coverage (size and type of queries), response time (how long it takes to determine containment), and the technique applied to encode the problem. In order to experimentally assess implementation limitations, we designed a benchmark suite offering different experimental settings depending on the type of queries, projection and reasoning (RDFS). We have applied this benchmark to three available systems using different techniques highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of such systems.

Query containment is defined as the problem of determining if the result of a query is included in the result of another query for any given dataset. It has major applications in query optimization and knowledge base verification. The main objective of this thesis is to provide sound and complete procedures to determine containment of SPARQL queries under expressive description logic axioms. Further, we implement these procedures to support theoretical results by experimentation. To date, testing query containment has been performed using different techniques: containment mapping, canonical databases, automata theory techniques and through a reduction to the validity problem in logic. In this thesis, we use the later technique to test containment of SPARQL queries using an expressive logic called mu-calculus. In doing so, RDF graphs are encoded as transition systems which preserves its characteristics, and queries and schema axioms are encoded as mu-calculus formulae. Thereby, query containment can be reduced to the validity test in the logic. This thesis identifies various fragments of SPARQL (and PSPARQL) and description logic schema languages for which containment is decidable. Additionally, it provides theoretically and experimentally proven procedures to check containment of those decidable fragments. Finally, this thesis proposes a benchmark for containment solvers. This benchmark is used to test and compare the current state-of-the-art containment solvers.

Querying the semantic web is mainly done through SPARQL. This language has been studied from different perspectives such as optimization and extension. One of its extensions, PSPARQL (Path SPARQL) provides queries with paths of arbitrary length. We study the static analysis of queries written in this language, in particular, containment of queries: determining whether, for any graph, the answers to a query are contained in those of another query. Our approach consists in encoding RDF graphs as transition systems and queries as mu-calculus formulas and then reducing the containment problem to testing satisfiability in the logic. We establish complexity bounds and report experimental results.

Querying the semantic web is mainly done through SPARQL. This language has been studied from different perspectives such as optimization and extension. One of its extensions, PSPARQL (Path SPARQL) provides queries with paths of arbitrary length. We study the static analysis of queries written in this language, in particular, containment of queries: determining whether, for any graph, the answers to a query are contained in those of another query. Our approach consists in encoding RDF graphs as transition systems and queries as mu-calculus formulas and then reducing the containment problem to testing satisfiability in the logic.

RDF is a knowledge representation language dedicated to the annotation of resources within the framework of the semantic web. Among the query languages for RDF, SPARQL allows querying RDF through graph patterns, i.e., RDF graphs involving variables. Other languages, inspired by the work in databases, use regular expressions for searching paths in RDF graphs. Each approach can express queries that are out of reach of the other one. Hence, we aim at combining these two approaches. For that purpose, we define a language, called PRDF (for "Path RDF") which extends RDF such that the arcs of a graph can be labeled by regular expression patterns. We provide PRDF with a semantics extending that of RDF, and propose a correct and complete algorithm which, by computing a particular graph homomorphism, decides the consequence between an RDF graph and a PRDF graph. We then define the PSPARQL query language, extending SPARQL with PRDF graph patterns and complying with RDF model theoretic semantics. PRDF thus offers both graph patterns and path expressions. We show that this extension does not increase the computational complexity of SPARQL and, based on the proposed algorithm, we have implemented a correct and complete PSPARQL query engine.

Ontological model transformation inside the OWL formalism, preserving the intended meaning across modelling styles, could support diverse kinds of semantic web applications. Three use cases are mentioned, which could share a single ontology transformation service based on a transformation pattern library. We discuss the ontology matching use case in more detail and illustrate on a simple example.

Many use cases for semantic technologies (eg. reasoning, modularisation, matching) could benefit from an ontology transformation service. This service is supported with ontology transformation patterns consisting of corresponding ontology patterns capturing alternative modelling choices, and an alignment between them. In this paper we present the transformation process together with its two constituents: a pattern detection and an ontology transformation process. The pattern detection process is based on SPARQL and the transformation process is based on an ontology alignment representation with specific extensions regarding detailed information about the transformation.

RDF is a knowledge representation language dedicated to the annotation of resources within the Semantic Web. Though RDF itself can be used as a query language for an RDF knowledge base (using RDF semantic consequence), the need for added expressivity in queries has led to define the SPARQL query language. SPARQL queries are defined on top of graph patterns that are basically RDF graphs with variables. SPARQL queries remain limited as they do not allow queries with unbounded sequences of relations (e.g. "does there exist a trip from town A to town B using only trains or buses?"). We show that it is possible to extend the RDF syntax and semantics defining the PRDF language (for Path RDF) such that SPARQL can overcome this limitation by simply replacing the basic graph patterns with PRDF graphs, effectively mixing RDF reasoning with database-inspired regular paths. We further extend PRDF to CPRDF (for Constrained Path RDF) to allow expressing constraints on the nodes of traversed paths (e.g. "Moreover, one of the correspondences must provide a wireless connection."). We have provided sound and complete algorithms for answering queries (the query is a PRDF or a CPRDF graph, the knowledge base is an RDF graph) based upon a kind of graph homomorphism, along with a detailed complexity analysis. Finally, we use PRDF or CPRDF graphs to generalize SPARQL graph patterns, defining the PSPARQL and CPSPARQL extensions, and provide experimental tests using a complete implementation of these two query languages.

Relating ontologies is very important for many ontology-based applications and more important in open environments like the semantic web. The relations between ontology entities can be obtained by ontology matching and represented as alignments. Hence, alignments must be taken into account in ontology management. This chapter establishes the requirements for alignment management. After a brief introduction to matching and alignments, we justify the consideration of alignments as independent entities and provide the life cycle of alignments. We describe the important functions of editing, managing and exploiting alignments and illustrate them with existing components.

Un document multimédia marie les technologies de l'écrit, de l'image et du son. Actuellement, les documents multimédia doivent pouvoir être exécutés sur de nombreuses plates-formes (téléphones portables, PDA, ordinateurs de bureau, lecteurs de salon...). Cette diversification des utilisations et des supports nécessite l'adaptation des documents à leur contexte d'exécution, parfois imprévisible au moment de la conception du document. Pour s'affranchir des langages ou formats de description multimédia, nous abstrayons les documents en une structure exprimant l'ensemble des relations entre objets du document. Les relations entre objets sont d'ordre temporel, spatial, hypermédia voire inter-dimensionnel, et peuvent être de nature qualitative. Cette structure capture la sémantique des documents car elle est capable de couvrir chacune de ses exécutions potentielles. Dans ce contexte, adapter va consister à calculer un ensemble d'exécutions le plus proche possible de ces exécutions potentielles qui satisfont les contraintes d'adaptation imposées par une plate-forme cible. À cet effet, les relations de la structure abstraite sont modifiées de sorte de satisfaire ces contraintes d'adaptation. Nous montrons, pour chaque dimension du document, comment réaliser ceci de manière réaliste. Afin de montrer l'applicabilité d'une telle approche, nous la développons dans un cadre adapté au standard SMIL pour lequel nous déclinons les adaptations spatiales, temporelles, spatio-temporelles et hypermédia. Nous sommes amenés à développer des techniques spécifiques pour les représentations spatiales et temporelles efficaces. Nous explorons aussi des approches impliquant la suppression d'objets.

On souhaite modéliser la sémantique d'un réseau de connaissances hétérogènes mises en correspondances. On suppose que ces réseaux sont représentés par un ensemble d'ontologies reliées entre elles par des alignements d'ontologies. Dans un contexte comme le Web ou certains réseaux pair-à-pair, diverses ontologies sont accessibles mais fortement hétérogènes en termes d'expressivité et de modélisation. Aussi, les systèmes d'inférence associés peuvent être indépendants les uns des autres. Je propose une sémantique générique pour ces réseaux, tolérante à l'hétérogénéité et permettant d'exploiter des systèmes existants sans les perturber. Cette sémantique garantie par ailleurs le principe de médiation, et permet une réutilisabilité des alignements et des ontologies. J'en propose quatre applications : les ontologies modulaires ; un langage d'alignement expressif distinct du langage d'ontologies ; un opérateur de composition d'alignements ; une procédure de raisonnement distribué.

RDF is a knowledge representation language dedicated to the annotation of resources within the framework of the semantic web. Among the query languages for querying an RDF knowledge base, some, such as SPARQL, are based on the formal semantics of RDF and the concept of semantic consequence, others, inspired by the work in databases, use regular expressions making it possible to search the paths in the graph associated with the knowledge base. In order to combine the expressivity of these two approaches, we define a mixed language, called PRDF (for "Paths RDF") in which the arcs of a graph can be labeled by regular expressions. We define the syntax and the semantics of these objects, and propose a correct and complete algorithm which, by a kind of homomorphism, calculates the semantic consequence between an RDF graph and a PRDF graph. This algorithm is the heart of query answering for the PSPARQL query language, the extension of the SPARQL query language which we propose and have implemented: a PSPARQL query allows to query an RDF knowledge base using graph patterns whose predicates are regular expressions.

RDF is a knowledge representation language dedicated to the annotation of resources within the Semantic Web. Though RDF itself can be used as a query language for an RDF knowledge base (using RDF consequence), the need for added expressivity in queries has led to the definition of the SPARQL query language. SPARQL queries are defined on top of graph patterns that are basically RDF (and more precisely GRDF) graphs. To be able to characterize paths of arbitrary length in a query (e.g., "does there exist a trip from town A to town B using only trains and buses?"), we have already proposed the PRDF (for Path RDF) language, effectively mixing RDF reasonings with database-inspired regular paths. However, these queries do not allow expressing constraints on the internal nodes (e.g., "Moreover, one of the stops must provide a wireless connection."). To express these constraints, we present here an extension of RDF, called CPRDF (for Constrained paths RDF). For this extension of RDF, we provide an abstract syntax and an extension of RDF semantics. We characterize query answering (the query is a CPRDF graph, the knowledge base is an RDF graph) as a particular case of CPRDF entailment that can be computed using some kind of graph homomorphism. Finally, we use CPRDF graphs to generalize SPARQL graph patterns, defining the CPSPARQL extension of that query language, and prove that the problem of query answering using only CPRDF graphs is an NP-hard problem, and query answering thus remains a PSPACE-complete problem for CPSPARQL.

Different knowledge representation languages can be used for different semantic web applications. Exchanging knowledge thus requires specific techniques established on a semantic ground. We present the `family of languages' approach based on a set of knowledge representation languages whose partial ordering depends on the transformability from one language to another by preserving a particular property. For the same set of languages, there can be several such structures based on the property selected for structuring the family. Properties of different strength allow performing practicable but well founded transformations. The approach offers the choice of the language in which a representation will be imported and the composition of available transformations between the members of the family.

This document describes an XML presentation syntax and XML Schemas for OWL 1.0 sublanguages: OWL Lite, OWL DL, and OWL Full. This document has been written to meet the requirement that OWL 1.0 should have an XML serialization syntax (R15 in [OWL Requirement]). It is not intended to be a normative specification. Instead, it represents a suggestion of one possible XML presentation syntax for OWL.

The XSLT language is both complex to use in simple cases (like tag renaming or element hiding) and restricted in complex ones (requiring the processing of multiple stylesheets with complex information flows). We propose a framework improving on XSLT. It provides simple-to-use and easy-to-analyze macros for the basic common transformation tasks. It provides a superstructure for composing multiple stylesheets, with multiple input and output documents, in ways that are not accessible within XSLT. Having the whole transformation description in an integrated format allows to control and to analyze the complete transformation.

Because different applications and different communities require different features, the semantic web might have to face the heterogeneity of languages for expressing knowledge. Yet, it will be necessary for many applications to use knowledge coming from different sources. In such a context, ensuring the correct understanding of imported knowledge on a semantic ground is very important. We present here an infrastructure based on the notions of transformations from one language to another and of properties satisfied by transformations. We show, in the particular context of semantic properties and description logics markup language, how it is possible (1) to define transformation properties, (2) to express, in a form easily processed by machine, the proof of a property and (3) to construct by composition a proof of properties satisfied by compound transformations. All these functions are based on extensions of current web standard languages.

Exchanging knowledge via the web might lead to the use of different representation languages because different applications could take advantage of this knowledge. In order to function properly, the interoperability of these languages must be established on a semantic ground (i.e., based on the models of the representations). Several solutions can be used for ensuring this interoperability. We present a new approach based on a set of knowledge representation languages partially ordered with regard to the transformability from one language to another by preserving a particular property. The advantages of the family of languages approach are the opportunity to choose the language in which a representation will be imported and the possibility to compose the transformations available between the members of the family. For the same set of languages, there can be several structures depending on the property used for structuring the family. We focus here on semantic properties of different strength that allow us to perform practicable but well founded transformations.

Semantic interoperability is the faculty of interpreting knowledge imported from other languages at the semantic level, i.e. to ascribe to each imported piece of knowledge the correct interpretation or set of models. It is a very important requirement for delivering a worldwide semantic web. This paper presents preliminary investigations towards developing a unified view of the problem. It proposes a definition of semantic interoperability based on model theory and shows how it applies to already existing works in the domain. Then, new applications of this definition to family of languages, ontology patterns and explicit description of semantics are presented.

The XSLT language is both complex to use in simple cases (like tag renaming or element hiding) and restricted in complex ones (requiring the processing of multiple stylesheets with complex information flows). We propose a framework improving on XSLT. It provides simple-to-use and easy-to-analyze macros for the basic common transformation tasks. It provides a superstructure for composing multiple stylesheets, with multiple input and output documents, in ways that are not accessible within XSLT. Having the whole transformation description in an integrated format allows to control and to analyze the complete transformation.

Because different applications and different communities require different features, the semantic web might have to face the heterogeneity of the languages for expressing knowledge. Yet, it will be necessary for many applications to use knowledge coming from different sources. In such a context, ensuring the correct understanding of imported knowledge on a semantic ground is very important. We present here an infrastructure based on the notions of transformations from one language to another and of properties satisfied by transformations. We show, in the particular context of semantic properties and description logics markup language, how it is possible (1) to define properties of transformations, (2) to express, in a form easily processed by machine, the proof of a property and (3) to construct by composition a proof of properties satisfied by compound transformations. All these functions are based on extensions of current web standard languages.